Competence of Vocational Teachers

Abstract

The study analyzed 45 empirical studies published between 2010 and 2018 using the Conceptual Analysis Method to examine how professional competence is defined and used in vocational teacher research. While the studies generally shared components of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values, along with attributes of contextuality, developmental potential, and behavioral connections, explicit definitions were rare. The author concludes by proposing that researchers define the concept according to their specific research context and purpose and clarify its relationships with adjacent concepts such as professionalism, performance, and qualifications.

Introduction

The emphasis on outcomes and changes in learning environments within Vocational Education and Training (VET) have required vocational teachers to continually develop their competencies. Teachers serve simultaneously as tutors, mentors, and practitioners. Because vocational education systems and teachers’ tasks vary across countries, professional competence also has diverse meanings.

Previous research has focused on identifying the competencies required of teachers and assessing their proficiency in them. This study examined how professional competence is defined and used alongside other concepts in empirical research on vocational teachers.

Competence over Time: Discussed as Motivation, Intelligence, Performance and Education

The work of White (1959) focused on effective interaction between individuals and their environment and the motivation to pursue it. The research by McClelland (1973) explored traits that predict excellent job performance. Discussions of performance improvement from the 1960s onward addressed the interdependence of work environments, group dynamics, and management practices. The work of Gilbert (1978) introduced performance improvement potential.

Competence-based education (CBE), introduced in the United States in the 1980s, responded to the gap between social demands and curricula. The performance requirements of professional associations were reflected in competency profiles and curriculum revisions. The competency-based approach subsequently spread to VET and HRD. Competence encompasses meeting minimum standards, achieving excellent performance, and the potential to respond to future problems. When “professional” is added, the tasks and responsibilities of a specific occupation become the reference point.

Methods

The study applied the Conceptual Analysis Method (CAM). CAM explores the multiple meanings of a concept and the contexts that shape them, using systematic literature review procedures to collect data.

The search covered EBSCOhost and Scopus for literature published between 2010 and 2018. The starting year was selected with reference to a 2009 European Union report, a 2010 OECD report, and the Bruges Communiqué, which emphasized the professional development of vocational teachers. The search terms comprised three groups (‘professional OR vocational OR occupational’, ‘competen* OR skill’, ‘vocational teacher’) and their synonyms. These were searched in the documents’ keyword and subject fields. Backward reference tracking and researcher confirmation strategies were also used.

Table 1 in the original article presents the inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Inclusion criteria	Exclusion criteria	Rationale
Peer-reviewed articles	Editorials, book chapters, duplicate literature	To ensure scientific quality
English	Other languages	The author’s linguistic scope
Publication period 2010–2018	Studies published before 2010 and after 2018	Relevance to the current context and the high expectations required of vocational teachers
Focus on the competence of vocational teachers	Other focuses	Relevance to the research problem
Empirical research: Studies analyzing primary data	Secondary data analysis, meta-analysis, literature reviews	Relevance to the research problem
Presence of a definition or explanation of professional competence	Studies that measured competence without defining or explaining it	To prevent misunderstandings stemming from insufficient data

During abstract screening, studies addressing other subjects, such as students’ vocational competence, were excluded. The full-text review excluded 51 papers. A further 7 were excluded based on the empirical research criterion and 6 based on the requirement for a definition or explanation. The final body of literature analyzed comprised 45 papers.

The analysis proceeded in five stages. First, the everyday meanings of professional and competence were examined in online dictionaries. The analysis explored instances in which the same term carries different meanings or multiple terms refer to the same phenomenon. Second, explicit definitions were distinguished from implicit explanations using NVivo. These were coded as definitions developed by the author, definitions adopted from other studies, or explanations presented without a unified definition.

Third, common attributes were identified through qualitative content analysis. Knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values were categorized as “components” of competence, while contextuality was categorized as an “attribute” describing the nature of the concept. Fourth, frequently occurring related concepts and their relationships with professional competence were analyzed. Fifth, objective word analysis was used to confirm the proximity of frequently occurring terms to professional competence and to check for concepts missed in the analysis.

Findings

The main themes in the literature were developing competence, constructing competence frameworks, measuring existing competence, and implementing CBE policies. Few studies clearly defined professional competence. Explanations listing knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values were examined as “pseudo-definitions.”

Many studies took the changing roles of vocational teachers and demands for their professionalization as their starting point. Few papers explained competence within the context of a national education system. CBE and situated learning frequently provided the theoretical background. CBE tended to frame competence in terms of tasks and standards, while situated learning focused on roles. The distinction between competence as a comprehensive concept and competency as specific abilities or behaviors was generally maintained.

The author identified contextuality, developmental potential, and relationships with behavior as common attributes of professional competence. Competence derives its meaning from reference points such as job standards, experts’ performance, and task characteristics. Some definitions took the individual as their reference point, using competence to explain identity.

Competence can be learned and developed through education and training. Studies adopting Mulder’s definition emphasized the integrated ability of individuals or organizations to perform in ways that lead to specific achievements. This includes cognitive, interactive, and affective skills, as well as attitudes and values.

Behavior was presented both as a component of competence and as the means through which competence is expressed by mobilizing knowledge and skills. The terms competent and capable were often used without definitions. This made it difficult to distinguish whether competent referred to meeting minimum standards or to a developmental stage along the path from novice to expert.

Responsibility was described in terms of the duty to meet occupational standards and the tasks to be performed. It was treated as a substantive element of professionalism.

Readiness or preparedness was used to explain the gap encountered in the transition from education to employment. Some studies defined competence as the knowledge and skills that prepare individuals to perform a job. Other studies viewed readiness as a state of recognizing personal abilities and assessing demands, measuring it through knowledge, skills, and attitudes. In these cases, the distinction between readiness and competence became blurred.

Expertise signified extensive experience and knowledge, efficient performance, and high levels of competence. Almost all papers presenting a definition mentioned the level of competence acquired, though discussion of differences between levels was limited.

Performance was treated as evidence of competence in practice. Qualifications referred to competence that had been evaluated and formally certified against specific standards. Definitions of the concept also reflect the authority and interests of the entities that establish those standards and qualifications.

Some standards frameworks placed subject knowledge and reflection within the domain of professional competence, distinguishing them from social and pedagogical competence. Scandinavian studies emphasized dual professionalism, considering both the previously established practitioner identity and the teacher identity formed later. In situated professionalism, professional competence developed through context and interaction. Professionalism, professional identity, and expertise encompass competence while requiring additional development.

Discussion

Professional competence was interpreted as a concept constructed and reconstructed by various stakeholders. Differences were particularly pronounced in the meanings of professional and in how occupational demands were defined. Definitions that address future performance and change also encompass issues of authority, justification, and control.

Perspectives emphasizing context give weight to learning through experience and behavior. Those emphasizing the individual focus on theoretical education and the measurability of performance. The study suggested defining and then operationalizing the concept to suit the target group and research problem. Individuals were described as agents who develop and enact their own understanding of professional competence while accepting external definitions.

Limitations, Implications and Future Research

Because the analysis was limited to empirical research, conceptual discussions may have been omitted for practical reasons, and CAM offered limited support for clarifying differences in competence levels. The study suggested that subsequent analyses could focus on the level of competence itself.

Generalizing context-bound competence to other environments also presents challenges. Proposed research included comparing how the concept is operationalized across VET systems or occupations and exploring how language and culture affect understandings of competence. Most definitions took the individual as their reference point, with professional competence at the collective level receiving little attention.

Reading notes

After the 6 papers without definitions or explanations of professional competency were excluded, the 45 papers analyzed varied in how they presented knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values. These findings derive from a CAM analysis of definitions and descriptions in the literature. The variations reflect the criteria each study uses to interpret competence rather than teachers’ actual competency levels.

The meaning of these measurement results depends on whether the items concerning knowledge, skills, and attitudes assess the resources required for performance or individuals’ judgments about the relationship between those resources and job demands.

References

Antera, S. (2021). Professional competence of vocational teachers: A conceptual review. Vocations and Learning, 14(3), 459–479. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-021-09271-7