Faculty Development and HRD Theory

Literature on faculty development in medical education

In Steinert et al. (2006) and the follow-up review Steinert et al. (2016), the authors systematically reviewed programs designed to improve teaching effectiveness. They identified experiential learning, feedback and reflection, collegial relationships, and sustained programs as conditions that support improvements in teaching. In a study of the Korean context, the research team reported that medical school faculty members’ development needs span student education, research, leadership, and self-development (Im et al. (2024)).

The work of O’Sullivan and Irby (2011) and Steinert (2010) describes how communities help participants apply what they learn in a program to the workplace. The review by McLean et al. (2008) examined the history and scope of faculty development across diverse faculty roles and organizational needs. The account by Steinert (2020) identifies organizational development and change as directions for faculty development.

Medical education has established frameworks for curricula and faculty development, including CBME, EPA, the Kern model, AMEE·BEME guides, and accreditation standards. It has developed a culture of measurement and assessment. HRD theories provide a basis for explaining faculty learning, careers, relationships, and organizational support within this established foundation.

Individual learning and expertise development

The framework proposed by McLagan (1989) outlined the scope of HRD by linking training and development, career development, and organizational development. The account by Swanson and Holton (2001) emphasizes expertise development and performance improvement, drawing on psychology, economics, and systems theory. The review by Watkins (1991) discusses the disciplinary pluralism of HRD. The analysis by Kuchinke (1998) examines the relationship between learning and performance. The review by Lee (2001) examined definitions of HRD, variation in practice across contexts, and its moral dimensions.

Andragogy, as described by Knowles (1973), incorporates learners’ experience, self-direction, readiness, and orientation toward problems into education. The model developed by Kolb (1984) describes how experience is transformed. The work of Schön (1983) addresses reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action in uncertain practice situations. The account by Mezirow (1991) examines transformative learning, in which learners critically review existing meaning perspectives. The work of Brookfield (1986) discusses relationships that prompt learners to examine their assumptions critically. The synthesis by Merriam and Baumgartner (2020) brings together theories of adult learning and their sociocultural contexts.

In medical education, the review by Norman (1999) examined the empirical evidence for approaches that assume learning principles unique to adults. The synthesis by Taylor and Hamdy (2013) integrated several approaches to adult learning, taking educational contexts and learning processes into account. In faculty development, relevant considerations include the distinction between clinical and pedagogical experience, readiness for the learning task, and the time available for reflection.

The work of Ericsson et al. (1993) addressed tasks designed to improve specific aspects of performance and the process of feedback and revision in deliberate practice. The accounts by Benner (1984) and Dreyfus (2004) presented a model in which novices who rely on rules accumulate experience and develop into experts who grasp situations as a whole. Adaptive expertise, proposed by Hatano and Inagaki (1986), encompasses performing familiar tasks efficiently, understanding principles, and adjusting performance to new conditions. The concept of masterity in Chang (2015) describes a life that combines continuous learning with creative practice.

In medical education, the work of Ericsson (2004) explained how medical performance develops through deliberate practice. The account by Steinert et al. (2021) presents adaptive expertise as a perspective on faculty development. Applying concepts of expertise to faculty development involves distinguishing the tasks, experience, and feedback conditions of clinical care from those of teaching.

Workplace learning, careers, and identity

The account by Lave and Wenger (1991) conceptualized how people learn to engage in a community’s activities through legitimate peripheral participation. The work of Wenger (1998) brought learning, meaning, and identity into a single framework of communities of practice. The accounts by Marsick and Watkins (2001) and Eraut (2004) discuss informal and incidental learning in the workplace and levels of intentionality and awareness in learning. The framework developed by Billett (2001) describes the interplay between the opportunities a workplace affords and an individual’s willingness to engage. The analysis by Fuller and Unwin (2003) placed learning environments along an expansive–restrictive continuum according to work arrangements and conditions for participation.

The study by Cantillon et al. (2016) analyzed how clinicians become teachers by participating in clinical communities of practice. Medical school faculty members learn in several contexts: the university, the clinical department, the ward, and relationships with colleagues.

The framework developed by Super (1980) encompassed the multiple roles people hold throughout life. The account by Savickas (2005) focused on how people give meaning and direction to occupational experience. The work of Hall (2004) addressed personal values and self-direction in the protean career. The book edited by Arthur and Rousseau (1996) addressed boundaries and mobility across organizations in the boundaryless career. Provisional selves, as described by Ibarra (1999), involve testing new professional roles through observation, experimentation, and feedback. The framework proposed by Higgins and Kram (2001) describes developmental networks composed of multiple relationships.

The work of Steinert et al. (2019) and Cantillon et al. (2019) situates teacher identity within social contexts and institutional recognition. In medical schools, clinical department affiliation, promotion regulations, and the recognition of teaching roles influence individual choices and role formation.

Learning transfer and organizational support

Learning transfer is the process of generalizing knowledge and skills acquired in training to the job and maintaining them over time. The framework developed by Baldwin and Ford (1988) brought together learner characteristics, training design, and the work environment as the three dimensions of transfer. The work of Rouiller and Goldstein (1993) and Holton et al. (2000) addressed environmental conditions for transfer, including supervisor and peer support and organizational expectations. The literature review by Burke and Hutchins (2007) and the meta-analysis by Blume et al. (2010) summarize factors associated with learning transfer and the relationships among them.

The article by Yelon et al. (2014) applied transfer research to faculty development programs. The study by Yelon et al. (2013) traced how physicians who had participated in faculty development adapted teaching ideas to their own settings and used them years later. Learning transfer explains how faculty members apply and adapt what they learn in faculty development to their teaching work, along with the conditions that shape this process. In medical schools, those conditions include clinical schedules, the time allocated to teaching, opportunities to use new teaching methods, and collegial support.

Self-determination theory, as presented by Ryan and Deci (2000), explains how motivation relates to the satisfaction of needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. The study by O’Sullivan and Irby (2015) used this theory to explore workshop leaders’ intrinsic motivation. The job demands-resources (JD-R) model developed by Demerouti et al. (2001) distinguished job demands and resources as two pathways to burnout. The concept of job crafting, introduced by Wrzesniewski and Dutton (2001), describes how organizational members reshape their tasks, relationships, and understanding of what their work means.

Perceived organizational support (POS), as described by Eisenberger et al. (1986), is members’ perception that the organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being. Psychological safety, as described by Edmondson (1999), is a shared belief that a team is safe for interpersonal risk-taking. Autonomous motivation operates at the individual level.

Organizational learning and knowledge creation

The concept of double-loop learning, proposed by Argyris and Schön (1978), involves reexamining the assumptions behind action. The 4I framework developed by Crossan et al. (1999) linked learning at the individual, group, and organizational levels through intuiting, interpreting, integrating, and institutionalizing. The work of Nonaka (1994) addressed how interactions between tacit and explicit knowledge generate new knowledge. The account by Weick (1995) examined how organizational members construct meaning through action and interpretation in ambiguous situations. The work of Senge (1990) and Marsick and Watkins (2003) discusses organizational structures and cultures that support learning.

The study by Plack et al. (2015) describes how medical education fellowship graduates share the knowledge and teaching experience they acquire with colleagues, interpret it collectively, and change their work practices. In medical schools, applying organizational learning concepts involves considering opportunities to discuss teaching experience and procedures for incorporating that experience into curriculum implementation and work rules.

Performance engineering and organizational development

The behavior engineering model proposed by Gilbert (1978) includes information, tools, resources, reward systems, and individual competence. The framework developed by Rummler and Brache (1995) addressed how work connects departments and how the organization, processes, and jobs align. The account by Swanson (1995) treated performance improvement as a central task of HRD. Applying these concepts to curriculum implementation in medical education involves examining faculty knowledge and skills alongside the authority and resources allocated to teaching and workflows across departments.

The account by Lewin (1947) explained group equilibrium and change in terms of interacting forces. The work of Schein (2010) described organizational culture as the basic assumptions people form as they learn together. The model developed by Burke and Litwin (1992) set out relationships among factors involved in organizational performance and change. The framework proposed by Kotter (1996) outlined procedures for driving change. The synthesis by Cummings and Worley (2015) brings together approaches to organizational diagnosis and interventions for change.

The account by White et al. (2013) used the Kotter model to explain curriculum reform undertaken in response to accreditation. In Korea, the study by An (2018) used Lewin’s force field analysis to examine curriculum reform at one medical school over time.

Critical HRD and diversity

The work of Fenwick (2004) discusses power, exclusion, and emancipation in the theory and practice of critical HRD. The study by Bierema and Cseh (2003) examined HRD research through a feminist research framework. The analysis by Sambrook (2009) explored the concept of critical HRD. Critical HRD examines the purposes of learning and development, how opportunities to participate are distributed, and who has a voice in decision-making.

In medical education, the work of Kumagai and Lypson (2009) discussed social justice and critical consciousness. In medical schools, this involves examining institutional conditions associated with rank, gender, specialty, and employment type, along with people’s experiences of participation.

Summary of theory groups

The classifications of use are based solely on the literature included in the table.

Theory group	Level of analysis	Representative concepts	Representative literature	Use in faculty development literature
HRD definitions and academic foundations	Individual, organizational, institutional	Training and development, career development, organizational development, learning–performance debate	McLagan (1989), Watkins (1991), Lee (2001)	Limited
Adult learning	Individual, relational	Andragogy, experiential learning, reflection, transformative learning	Knowles (1973), Kolb (1984), Mezirow (1991)	Extensive
Workplace and informal learning	Individual, relational, organizational	Participation opportunities, expansive–restrictive environments, communities of practice	Lave & Wenger (1991), Billett (2001), Fuller & Unwin (2003)	Extensive
Expertise development	Individual, relational	Deliberate practice, stages of skill acquisition, adaptive expertise, masterity	Ericsson et al. (1993), Dreyfus (2004), Chang (2015)	Some
Careers and identity	Individual, relational, organizational, institutional	Protean and boundaryless careers, provisional selves, developmental networks	Super (1980), Ibarra (1999), Hall (2004)	Some
Learning transfer	Individual, relational, organizational	Generalization and maintenance, transfer climate, opportunities for use	Baldwin & Ford (1988), Holton et al. (2000), Blume et al. (2010)	Some
Motivation, jobs, and support	Individual, relational, organizational	Autonomous motivation, job demands and resources, job crafting, POS, psychological safety	Edmondson (1999), Ryan & Deci (2000), Demerouti et al. (2001)	Some
Organizational learning and knowledge creation	Individual, relational, organizational	Double-loop learning, 4I, tacit and explicit knowledge, sensemaking	Argyris & Schön (1978), Nonaka (1994), Crossan et al. (1999)	Some
Performance engineering and systems	Individual, organizational	Behavior engineering model, organization–process–job alignment	Gilbert (1978), Rummler & Brache (1995), Swanson (1995)	Limited
Organizational development and change	Relational, organizational, institutional	Group dynamics, organizational culture, leading change	Lewin (1947), Burke & Litwin (1992), Kotter (1996)	Some
Critical HRD and diversity	Individual, relational, organizational, institutional	Power, voice, distribution of development opportunities	Bierema & Cseh (2003), Fenwick (2004), Sambrook (2009)	Limited

Scope of this article

The literature on faculty development in medical education provides examples of how the core concepts of 11 major groups of HRD theories apply to medical education. These concepts address individual, relational, organizational, and institutional levels, and their application depends on conditions in medical schools, where clinical care, research, and teaching coexist.

References

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